Massage Research
Most of the massage research that is documented on this page is limited to basic european massage. European massage is to most commonly recognized form of massage, is the most general non specific form of massage.
It is important to note that there are numerous forms of massage that have not been investigated through deductive scientific methods.
There are many other form of massage that are widly used and that have proven to be very effective in treating many of the common conditions listed below. In addition, treatments such as Essential oils, and Mineral soaks, which enhance the effacy of massage, have not been evaluated in this research.
Chronic Fatigue Syndrome*
Field, T, Sunshine, W., Hernandez-Reif, M., Quintino, O., Schanberg, S., Kuhn, C., & Burman, I. (1997). Chronic fatigue syndrome: massage therapy effects on depression and somatic symptoms in chronic fatigue syndrome. Journal of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome, 3, 43-51.
METHOD: Twenty chronic fatigue syndrome subjects were randomly assigned to a massage therapy or a SHAM TENS (transcutaneous electrical stimulation) control group. RESULTS: Immediately following the massage therapy versus SHAM TENS on the first and last days of the study the massage therapy group had lower depression and anxiety scores and lower cortisol levels. Longer-term effects (last day versus first day) suggested that the massage therapy versus the SHAM TENS group had lower depression, emotional distress and somatic symptom scores, more hours of sleep and lower epinephrine and cortisol levels.
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Carpal Tunnel Syndrome*
Field, T., Diego, M., Cullen, C., Hartshorn, K., Gruskin, A., Hernandez-Reif, M., & Sunshine, W. (2004). Carpal tunnel syndrome symptoms are lessened following massage therapy. Journal of Bodywork and MOvement Therapies, 8, 9-14.
METHOD: The objective of this study was to determine the effectiveness of massage therapy for relieving the symptoms of Carpal Tunnel Syndrome (CTS). Sixteen adults with CTS symptoms were randomized to a 4-week massage therapy or control group. Participants in the massage therapy group were taught a self-massage routine that was done daily at home. They were also massaged once a week by a therapist. The participants’ diagnosis was based on a nerve conduction velocity test, the Phalen test, and the Tinel sign test performed by a physician. The participants were also given the State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), the Profile of Mood States (POMS), a visual analog scale for pain and a test of grip strength. RESULTS: Participants in the massage therapy group improved on median peak latency and grip strength. They also experienced lower levels of perceived pain, anxiety, and depressed mood. The results suggest that symptoms of CTS might be relieved by a daily regimen of massage therapy.
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Cardiovascular*
Boone, T., Tanner, M., & Radosevich, A. (2001). Effects of a 10-minute back rub on cardiovascular responses in healthy subjects. American Journal of Chinese Medicine. 29, 47-52
METHODS: This study determined the cardiovascular responses to a 10-minute back rub. Twelve healthy, college-age males and females volunteered to participate as subjects. The subjects were assessed for 10 minutes on a massage table lying on one side. During the treatment period, a back rub was administered. Oxygen consumption and cardiac output were measured. RESULTS: The central and peripheral components of oxygen consumption were changed and cardiac output decreased. These results indicate that the back rub was effective in inducing relaxation.
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Bulimia*
Field, T., Schanberg, S., Kuhn, C., Field, T., Fierro, K., Henteleff, T., Mueller, C., Yando, R., Shaw, S. & Burman, I. (1998). Bulimic adolescents benefit from massage therapy. Adolescence, 33, 555-563.
METHOD: Twenty-four female adolescent bulimic inpatients were randomly assigned to a massage therapy or a standard treatment (control) group. RESULTS: The massaged patients showed immediate reductions in anxiety and depression (both self-report and behavior observation). In addition, by the last day of the therapy, they had lower depression scores, lower cortisol (stress) levels, higher dopamine levels, and showed improvement on several other psychological and behavioral measures.
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Back Pain*
Hernandez-Reif, M., Field, T., Krasnegor, J., Theakston, H. & Burman, I. (2000). Chronic lower back pain is reduced and range of motion improved with massage therapy. International Journal of Neuroscience, 99, 1-15.
METHOD: A randomized between-groups design evaluated massage therapy versus relaxation for chronic low back pain. Treatment effects were evaluated for reducing pain, depression, anxiety and stress hormones, and sleeplessness and for improving trunk range of motion associated with chronic low back pain. RESULTS: By the end of the study, the massage therapy group, as compared to the relaxation group, reported experiencing less pain, depression, anxiety and improved sleep. They also showed improved trunk and pain flexion performance, and their serotonin and dopamine levels were higher.
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Interesting Facts On Touch
* Touch is the first sense to develop in humans, and may be the last to fade
* there are approximately 5 million touch receptors in our skin-- 3000 in a finger tip
* a touch of any kind can reduce the heart rate and lower blood pressure
* touch stimulates the release of endorphins (the body's natural pain killers) which is why a mother's hug for a child's skinned knee can literally make it better
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Pregnancy Research*
Field, T., Hernandez-Reif, M., Hart, S., Theakston, H., Schanberg, S., Kuhn, C. & Burman, I. (1999). Pregnant women benefit from massage therapy. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics & Gynecology, 20, 31-38.
METHOD: Twenty-six pregnant women were assigned to a massage therapy or a relaxation therapy group for 5 weeks. The therapies consisted of 20-min sessions twice a week. RESULTS: Both groups reported feeling less anxious after the first session and less leg pain after the first and last session. Only the massage therapy group, however, reported reduced anxiety, improved mood, better sleep and less back pain by the last day of the study. In addition, urinary stress hormone levels (norepinephrine) decreased for the massage therapy group, and the women had fewer complications during labor and their infants had fewer postnatal complications (e.g., less prematurity).
Labor Pain*
See more on labor pain below
Chang, M.Y., Wang, S.Y., & Chen, C.H. (2002). Effects of massage on pain and anxiety during labor: a randomized controlled trial in Taiwan. J Adv Nurs., 38, 68-73.
METHOD: Sixty primiparous women expected to have a normal childbirth in Taiwan were randomly assigned to either the experimental or the control group. The experimental group received massage whereas the control group did not. RESULTS: In both groups, there was a relatively steady increase in pain intensity and anxiety level as labor progressed. The experimental group had significantly lower pain reactions and reported that massage was helpful, providing pain relief and psychological support during labour.
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Cerebral Circulation*
Gusarova, S.A., Kuznetsov, O.F., Gorbunov, F.E., & Maslovskai, S.G. (1998). The characteristics of the effect of point and classical massage on the hemodynamics of patients with a history of transient ischemic attacks in the vertebrobasilar system. Vopr. Kurortol. Foizioter. Lech. Fiz. Kult., 5, 7-9.
METHOD: Clinical and instrumental studies have revealed differences in effects of nerve ending and classic massage on hemodynamics in 41 patients early after transitory ischemic attacks in the vertebrobasilar area. RESULTS: Point massage produced more potent vasotropic effect, contraindications to it are minimal. It can be considered as a pathogenetic therapy aimed at correction of cerebral circulation in patients with vertebrobasilar area applicable early after acute cerebrovascular episodes.
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Constipation*
Bishop, E., McKinnon, E., Weir, E., & Brown, D.W. (2003). Reflexology in the management of encopresis and chronic constipation. Paediatr Nrs., 15, 20-1.
METHOD: Encopresis or faecal incontinence in children is an extremely distressing condition that is usually secondary to chronic constipation/stool withholding. Traditional management with enemas may add to the child's distress. This study investigated the efficacy of treating patients with encopresis and chronic constipation with reflexology. An observational study was carried out of 50 children between three and 14 years of age who had a diagnosis of encopresis/chronic constipation. The children received six sessions of 30-minutes of reflexology to their feet. With the help of their parents they completed questionnaires on bowel motions and soiling patterns before, during and after the treatment. A further questionnaire was completed by parents pre and post treatment on their attitude towards reflexology. Forty-eight of the children completed the sessions. RESULTS: The number of bowel motions increased and the incidence of soiling decreased. Parents were keen to try the reflexology and were satisfied with the effect of reflexology on their child's condition. It appears that reflexology has been an effective method of treating encopresis and constipation over a six-week period in this cohort of patients.
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Dancers*
Leivadi, S., Hernandez-Reif, M., Field, T., O'Rourke, M., D'Arienzo, S., Lewis, D., del Pino, N., Schanberg, S., Kuhn, C. (1999). Massage Therapy and Relaxation Effects on University Dance Students. Journal of Dance Medicine & Science, 3, 108-112.
METHOD: Thirty female university dancers were randomly assigned to a massage therapy or relaxation therapy group. The therapies consisted of 30-minute sessions twice a week for five weeks. RESULTS: Both groups reported less depressed mood and lowered anxiety levels. However, saliva cortisol (stress hormones) decreased only for the massage therapy group. Both groups reported less neck, shoulder, and back pain after the treatment sessions and reduced back pain across the study. However, only the massage therapy group showed increased range of motion across the study, including neck extension and shoulder abduction.
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Depression*
Field, T., Morrow, C., Valdeon, C., Larson, S., Kuhn, C., & Schanberg, S.(1992). Massage reduces depression and anxiety in child and adolescent psychiatric patients. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 125-131.
METHOD: A 30-minute back massage was given daily for a 5-day period to 52 hospitalized depressed and adjustment disorder children and adolescents. RESULTS: Compared with a control group who viewed relaxing videotapes, the massaged subjects were less depressed and anxious and had lower saliva cortisol levels after the massage. In addition, nurses rated the subjects as being less anxious and more cooperative on the last day of the study, and nighttime sleep increased over this period. Finally, urinary cortisol and norepinephrine levels decreased, but only for the depressed subjects.
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Fibromyalgia*
Field, T., Diego, M., Cullen, C., Hernandez-Reif, M., & Sunshine, W. (2002). Fibromyalgia pain and substance P decreases and sleep improves following massage therapy. Journal of Clinical Rheumatology.
METHOD: To determine the effects of massage therapy versus relaxation therapy on sleep, substance P and pain in fibromyalgia patients, twenty four adult fibromyalgia patients were randomly assigned to a massage therapy or relaxation therapy group. They received 30-minute treatments twice a week for five weeks. RESULTS: Both groups showed a decrease in anxiety and depressed mood immediately after the first and last therapy sessions. However, across the course of the study only the massage therapy group reported an increase in the number of sleep hours and a decrease in their sleep movements. In addition, substance P levels decreased and the patients' physicians assigned lower disease and pain ratings and rated fewer tenderpoints in the massage therapy group.
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Offenbacher, M. & Stucki, G. (2000). Physical therapy in the treatment of fibromyalgia. Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology - Supplement, 113, 78-85.
METHODS: Fibromyalgia (FM) is a syndrome of unknown etiology characterized by chronic wide spread pain, increased tenderness to palpation and additional symptoms such as disturbed sleep, stiffness, fatigue and psychological distress. While medication mainly focus on pain reduction, physical therapy is aimed at disease consequences such as pain, fatigue, deconditioning, muscle weakness and sleep disturbances and other disease consequences. Based on a review of current treatment options in the treatment of fibromyalgia and evidence from randomized controlled trials, cardiovascular fitness training improves cardiovascular fitness, measures of pain as well as subjective energy and work capacity and physical and social activities. Based on anecdotal evidence or small observational studies, physiotherapy may reduce overloading of the muscle system, improve postural fatigue and positioning, and condition weak muscles. Modalities and whole body cryotherapy may reduce localized as well as generalized pain in the short term. Trigger point injection may reduce pain originating from concomitant trigger points in some FM patients. Massage may reduce muscle tension and may be prescribed as a adjunct with other therapeutic interventions. Acupuncture may reduce pain and increase pain threshold. Biofeedback may positively influence subjective and objective disease measures. TENS may reduce localized musculoskeletal pain in fibromyalgia.
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Sunshine, W., Field, T., Schanberg, S., Quintino, O., Kilmer, T., Fierro, K., Burman, I., Hashimoto, M., McBride, C., & Henteleff, T. (1996). Massage therapy and transcutaneous electrical stimulation effects on fibromyalgia. Journal of Clinical Rheumatology, 2, 18-22.
METHOD: Thirty adult fibromyalgia syndrome subjects were randomly assigned to a massage therapy, a transcutaneous electrical stimulation (TENS), or a transcutaneous electrical stimulation no-current group (Sham TENS) for 30-minute treatment sessions two times per week for 5 weeks. RESULTS: The massage therapy subjects reported lower anxiety and depression, and their cortisol levels were lower immediately after the therapy sessions on the first and last days of the study. The TENS group showed similar changes, but only after therapy on the last day of the study. The massage therapy group improved on the dolorimeter measure of pain. They also reported less pain the last week, less stiffness and fatigue, and fewer nights of difficult sleeping. Thus, massage therapy was the most effective therapy with these fibromyalgia patients.
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H-Reflex*
Morelli, M, Seaborne, D. E., & Sullivan S.J. (1991). H-reflex modulation during manual muscle massage of human triceps surae. Archives of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, 72, 915-919.
METHOD: The effect of a six-minute manual muscle massage on the excitability of the spinal reflex pathway was assessed in 20 subjects. H-reflex recordings were obtained from the right soleus muscle, which was the site being massaged. Skin temperature and antagonist activity were monitored. An A-B-A interrupted-time series design was used consisting of two pretreatment, two treatment (massage), and two posttreatment conditions. RESULTS: H-reflex amplitudes recorded during both massage conditions were significantly reduced in comparison to all other (before and after) conditions. This decrease could not be explained conclusively by changes in skin temperature, nerve conduction velocity, or antagonist recruitment, thus indicating a decrease in spinal reflex excitability attributable to massage.
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Headache*
Foster, K.A., Liskin, J., Cen, S., Abbott, A., Armisen, V., Globe, D., Knox, L., Mitchell, M., Shtir, C., & Azen, S. (2004). The Trager approach in the treatment of chronic headache: a pilot study. Altern Ther Health Med., 10, 40-6.
METHOD: Thirty-three volunteers with a self-reported history of chronic headache and with at least one headache per week for at least 6 months received Trager massage. RESULTS: Participants randomized to Trager massage demonstrated a significant decrease in the frequency of headaches, improvement in head quality of life and a 44% decrease in medication usage (P = 0.03).
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Hernandez-Reif, M., Field, T., Dieter, J., Swerdlow. & Diego, M., (1998). Migraine Headaches are Reduced by Massage Therapy. International Journal of Neuroscience, 96, 1-11.
METHOD: Twenty-six adults with migraine headaches were randomly assigned to a massage therapy group, which received twice-weekly 30-minute massages for five consecutive weeks or a wait-list control group. RESULTS: The massage group reported fewer distress symptoms, less pain, more headache free days, fewer sleep disturbances and taking fewer analgesics. They also showed increased serotonin levels.
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Quinn, C., Chandler, C., & Moraska, A. (2002). Massage therapy and frequency of chronic tension headaches. American Journal of Public Health, 92, 1657-1661.
METHOD: Examined the effects of massage therapy on chronic, nonmigraine headache. Four chronic tension headache sufferers (aged 18-55 yrs) received structured massage therapy treatment directed toward the neck and shoulder muscles during a 4-wk period. Collected data included headache frequency, duration, and intensity prior to and during the treatment period. RESULTS: Massage therapy was effective in reducing the number of weekly headaches. Headache frequency was significantly reduced within the initial week of massage treatment, and continued for the remainder of the study. A trend toward reduction in average duration of each headache event between the baseline period and the treatment period was also observed. Headache intensity was unaffected by massage treatment. It is concluded that the muscle-specific massage therapy used in this study has the potential to be a functional, nonpharmacological intervention for reducing the incidence of chronic tension headache.
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Hypertension*
Hernandez-Reif, M., Field, T., Krasnegor, J., Theakston, H., Hossain, Z., & Burman, I. (2000). High blood pressure and associated symptoms were reduced by massage therapy. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 4, 31-38.
METHOD: High blood pressure is associated with elevated anxiety, stress and stress hormones, hostility, depression and catecholamines. Massage therapy and progressive muscle relaxation were evaluated as treatments for reducing blood pressure and associated symptoms. Adults who had been diagnosed as hypertensive received ten 30-minute massage sessions over five weeks or they were given progressive muscle relaxation instructions (control group). RESULTS: Sitting diastolic blood pressure decreased after the first and last massage therapy sessions and reclining diastolic blood pressure decreased from the first to the last day of the study. Although both groups reported less anxiety, only the massage therapy group reported less depression and hostility and showed decreased urinary and salivary hormone levels (cortisol). Massage therapy may be effective in reducing diastolic blood pressure and symptoms associated with hypertension.
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Immunology*
Ironson, G., Field, T., Scafidi, F., Hashimoto, M., Kumar, M., Kumar, A., Price, A., Goncalves, A., Burman, I., Tetenman, C., Patarca, R., and Fletcher, M. A. (1996). Massage therapy is associated with enhancement of the immune system's cytotoxic capacity. International Journal of Neuroscience, 84, 205-217.
METHOD: Twenty-nine gay men (20 HIV+, 9 HIV-) received daily massages for one month. A subset of 11 of the HIV+ subjects served as a within subject control group (one month with and without massages). RESULTS: Major immune findings for the effects of the month of massage included a significant increase in Natural Killer Cell number, Natural Killer Cell Cytotoxicity, soluble CD8, and the cytotoxic subset of CD8 cells. There were no changes in HIV disease progression markers (CD4, CD4/CD8 ratio, Beta-2 microglobulin, neopterin). Major neuroendocrine findings, measured via 24 hour urines included a significant decrease in cortisol, and nonsignificant trends toward decrease of catecholamines. There were also significant decreases in anxiety and increases in relaxation which were significantly correlated with increases in NK cell number. Thus, there appears to be an increase in cytotoxic capacity associated with massage. Implications for HIV+ men as those with other illnesses, particularly cancer, are discussed.
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Zeitlin, D.; Keller, S.E; Shiflett, S.C; Schleifer, S.J; Bartlett, J.A. Immunological effects of massage therapy during acute academic stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 62, 83-84.
METHOD: Examined the immunological effects of massage therapy as a stress-reduction intervention in 9 medically-healthy female medical students (aged 21-25 yrs). Ss received a 1-hr full body massage 1 day before an anxiety-provoking academic examination. Blood samples, self-report data (the State component of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and a visual analogue scale of perceived stress), and vital signs (respiratory rate, BP, pulse, and temperature) were obtained immediately prior to and after the message. Cell phenotypes of the major cells of the immune system, natural killer cell activity (NKCA), and mitogen-induced lymphocyte stimulation were assessed by standard techniques. RESULTS: A significant decrease in respiratory rate occurred from pre- to post-massage. Mean anxiety scores decreased from 52.8 to 26.7 and mean scores on the visual analogue scale decreased from 75.6 to 34.6 from pre- to post-massage. No significant pre- to post-massage lymphocyte responses to mitogens were found, but a significant increase in NKCA occurred post-massage. NKCA correlated negatively with both perceived stress and anxiety. Results suggest that massage reduces subjective and somatic signs of anxiety and that massage may have health benefits beyond and unrelated to its stress-reduction potential.
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Juvenile Rheumatoid Arthritis*
Field, T., Hernandez-Reif, M., Seligman, S., Krasnegor, J., Sunshine, W., Rivas-Chacon, R., and Schanberg, S. (1997). Juvenile rheumatoid arthritis: benefits from massage therapy. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 22, 607-617.
METHOD: Studied children with mild to moderate juvenile rheumatoid arthritis who were massaged by their parents 15 minutes a day for 30 days (and a control group engaged in relaxation therapy). RESULTS: The children's anxiety and stress hormone (cortisol) levels were immediately decreased by the massage, and over the 30-day period their pain decreased on self-reports, parent reports, and their physician's assessment of pain (both the incidence and severity) and pain-limiting activities.
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Labor Pain*
Chang, M.Y., Wang, S.Y., & Chen, C.H. (2002). Effects of massage on pain and anxiety during labor: a randomized controlled trial in Taiwan. J Adv Nurs., 38, 68-73.
METHOD: Sixty primiparous women expected to have a normal childbirth in Taiwan were randomly assigned to either the experimental or the control group. The experimental group received massage whereas the control group did not. RESULTS: In both groups, there was a relatively steady increase in pain intensity and anxiety level as labor progressed. The experimental group had significantly lower pain reactions and reported that massage was helpful, providing pain relief and psychological support during labour.
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Chung, U.L., Hung, L.C., Kuo, S.C., & Huang, C.L. (2003). Effects of LI4 and BL 67 acupressure on labor pain and uterine contractions in the first stage of labor. J Nurs Res., 11, 251-60.
METHOD: 127 parturient women were randomly assigned to three groups. Each group received one of the following treatments, LI4 and BL67 acupressure, light skin stroking, or no treatment/conversation only. Data collected from the VAS and external fetal monitoring strips were used for analysis. RESULTS: Results of the study confirmed the effect of LI4 and BL67 acupressure in lessening labor pain during the active phase of the first stage of labor. There were no verified effects on uterine contractions.
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Field, T., Hernandez-Reif, M., Taylor, S., Quintino, O., & Burman, I. (1997). Labor pain is reduced by massage therapy. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynecology, 18, 286-291.
METHOD: Twenty-eight women were recruited from prenatal classes and randomly assigned to receive massage in addition to coaching in breathing from their partners during labor, or to receive coaching in breathing alone (a technique learned during prenatal classes). RESULTS: The massaged mothers reported a decrease in depressed mood, anxiety and more positive affect following the first massage during labor. In addition, the massaged mothers had significantly shorter labor, a shorter hospital stay and lesspostpartum depression.
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